BROADLEAF FORESTS

Broadleaf forests grow in regions that have a fairly long growing season and plentiful rainfall. Every continent except Antarctica has broadleaf forests, which are also called hardwood forests. In areas with cold, snowy winters, almost all the trees in broadleaf forests lose their leaves each autumn. In tropical areas, most broadleaf trees are evergreen.

Before the 1800's, broadleaf forests covered much of the Eastern United States. They included such trees as ashes, birches, maples, and oaks. During the 1800's, most of the trees in these forests were cut down to provide lumber and fuel and to make room for farms and cities. Today, only a few parts of the Eastern United States have large broadleaf forests. Western Europe also had great forests of broadleaf trees, including ashes, beeches, and oaks. But most of these forests have been cut down.

Broadleaf forests that consist largely of quaking aspens and balsam poplars cover parts of southern Canada and large areas of southern Siberia. Forests of birches and oaks grow in eastern Europe and along the Yellow Sea coast of China and Korea. Southeastern Australia has valuable forests of eucalyptus trees. These broadleaf trees grow nearly as tall as California's needleleaf giants, the redwoods. Some eucalyptus trees stand more than 300 feet (91 meters) tall. About 600 kinds of eucalyptus trees grow in Australia. Almost all of these trees are evergreen.

In many areas, mixed forests of broadleaf and needleleaf trees grow alongside broadleaf or needleleaf forests. Central Canada, the Eastern United States, central and southern Europe, and eastern Asia all have large mixed forests.

Remarkable broadleaf forests grow in tropical regions where the weather is always hot and rain falls regularly every month of the year. In these tropical rain forests, many of the trees look alike. They are tall, and many tower more than 150 feet (46 meters). The trees have leathery, dark-green leaves. Because the trees receive plenty of moisture throughout the year, most of them are evergreen. The trees may thus look alike, but they belong to many species. Many palms grow among the broadleaf trees in the tropical rain forests. The largest rain forests are in South and Central America, central Africa, and Southeast Asia.

NEEDLELEAF FORESTS

Needleleaf forests grow mainly in regions that have long, cold winters. These forests, which are also called softwood forests, stretch across Canada, northern Europe, and Siberia. Many firs, larches, and spruces grow in these northern forests, along with a few broadleaf trees, such as birches and willows. Some willows grow even farther north than needleleaf trees do. But they seldom reach more than shrub size. Needleleaf forests also blanket slopes in such mountain ranges as the Alps and the Rocky Mountains.


The Canadian needleleaf forests extend southward into the Western United States, where they include many of the world's largest trees. Many California redwoods tower over 300 feet (91 meters). Tall Douglas-firs also grow in the Western United States.

A few needleleaf forests grow in warmer regions. For example, the Southeastern United States has large forests of pines, such as loblolly pines and longleaf pines. These forests provide great quantities of wood for lumber and wood pulp.

NEEDLELEAF TRESS ARE ABOUT 500 SPECIES

Needleleaf trees include such familiar trees as firs, hemlocks, pines, redwoods, and spruces. There are about 500 species of needleleaf trees. Most of these trees have narrow, pointed, needlelike leaves. But a few types, such as cedars and junipers, have narrow, scalelike leaves.

Most needleleaf trees are evergreen, though they produce new needles each year. The oldest needles turn yellow or brown and drop, but the youngest needles remain green and do not fall. A few species of needleleaf trees are deciduous. One kind is the larch, which grows in northern forests throughout the world. Another deciduous needleleaf tree is the baldcypress that grows in swamps of the Southeastern United States.

Foresters call needleleaf trees softwoods because most of them have softer wood than broadleaf trees have. But the wood of Douglas-firs, yews, and some other needleleaf trees is hard.

Needleleaf trees belong to a group of plants called gymnosperms. Gymnosperms do not have flowers and their seeds are not enclosed to form fruits. Most gymnosperm trees bear their seeds in cones composed of hard scales. The seeds lie open on the surface of the scales. Botanists call such trees conifers.

Most conifers grow north of the equator. The conifers belong to four families-the pine, yew, cypress, and taxodium families. The pine family is by far the largest. It includes not only pines, but also such trees as firs, hemlocks, larches, and spruces. Pine trees make up a large genus (group of species) within the pine family. Loblolly pines, ponderosa pines, and white pines are a few North American members of this genus. The yew family includes such well-known ornamental trees as English yews and Japanese yews. Although yews are classified as conifers, they do not produce cones but cup-shaped "berries." Many members of the cypress family, such as arborvitae and junipers, have scalelike leaves and give off a spicy fragrance. The taxodium family includes baldcypresses and the largest of all living trees-the redwoods and giant sequoias.

Two conifer families-the podocarpus family and the araucaria family--grow mainly south of the equator. Podocarpus trees are tall evergreens with broader leaves than those of most needleleaf trees. The araucaria family includes the Chile pine. This strange-looking tree has snakelike branches covered with sharp, scaly leaves. It is sometimes called the monkey puzzle tree because its sharp leaves make it difficult to climb.

FOREST PROTECTION

Definition of Forest Protection is a business, activity, and measures to prevent the destruction of forests and forest products due to human actions or natural. Causes of deforestation can be forest fires, pests, diseases, grazing, theft and causing protection factor. One of the principles of forest protection is the prevention of the onset or progression of a cause of forest destruction , would be more effective than control activities after the damage occurred.

The principle of priority to the prevention of forest protection onset or progression of a forest damage through silvicultural planning and good management.

In conjunction with the management measures, prevention of the concept of forest protection is approached by way of:

• decision to move or act to prevent the causes of forest destruction is not developed and does not cause deforestation seriously.
• development of a form of forest management is careful and insightful future.

Studies of forest protection in general as well studied as part of the Science Silviculture . Forest Protection Branch of Science has developed into a more specific knowledge of science among the Forest Diseases, Pests of Forest Science and Forest Fire.

FOREST PROTECTION STRATEGY

Several forest protection strategies that can be used to achieve sustainable forest management are:

1. understand the interaction with the agent of forest destruction so that:
   • can identify the factors that cause problems in forest protection
   • can identify the cause of primary damage
2. can analyze and make decisions as a whole and not just limited to the most serious causes of damage
3. always seen as a forest protection measures are not separate from silvicultural
4. aware that forest protection is increasingly important and the approach is not limited to field crops but excluding forest products.

Protection strategies in addition to ensuring the sustainability of forest management can also ensure a low risk of forest management.

FOREST DEGRADATION IN INDONESIA

When the rainy season floods everywhere, many people say that this is due to forest destruction. Flooding is just one result of the impact of deforestation on the environment. Not only floods during the rainy season, the danger of drought occurs when the dry season comes. When the forest is still well preserved has the trees are dense, the forest can absorb water when the rains come and save them in the soil in the crevices of the roots , then release it slowly through the watershed . Forests control the fluctuation of the water in the river during the rainy season so it does not overflow during the dry season and not dry. Here the forest functions as a regulator of hydro-orologis for human life and other living creatures.

In addition to flooding and drought, there are many more negative effects of deforestation. Damage to the forest environment like this is a human-induced damage to the cutting down of trees in the headwaters of the river even clearing the converted in other uses.

Understanding and definition of forest degradation is the reduction in forest area due to damage to ecosystems that are often called forest degradation and deforestation as well plus the conversion of forest land or the term deforestation .

CIFOR study (International Forestry Research) examine the causes of forest cover change which consists of shifting cultivation, encroachment, transmigration, mining , plantation, plantations, logging and timber industry. Besides illegal logging activities carried out by professional groups or smugglers who illegally supported by rogue elements.

The opening of forests for oil palm plantations be accused as one of the causes of forest destruction. Forest in which there are many different types of trees turned into monoculture, causing loss of biodiversity and the balance of ecological in the area. Some types of animals that make the forest as its habitat will move to find a more suitable place to live.

Land clearing for oil palm plantations in tropical forests is one of the trigger fires and forest negative impact on greenhouse gas emissions.

Recent research results of CIFOR revealed some negative impact from changes in land use for the production of biofuels. Development of oil palm plantations on peat land, carbon emissions resulting from land conversion takes hundreds of years for the recovery process as usual.

Data of forest destruction in Indonesia is still confusing, this is due to differences in perception and interest in revealing data about forest destruction. The rate of deforestation in Indonesia according to World Bank estimates between 700,000 to 1.2 million ha per year, where deforestation by shifting cultivators is estimated at half. But the World Bank acknowledged that the estimated rate of deforestation is based on weak data. Meanwhile, according to the FAO, said the rate of forest destruction in Indonesia reached 1.315 million ha per year or a total area of ​​forest annually reduced by one percent (1%).

NGOs concerned about environmental degradation revealed at 1.6 - 2 million ha per year. While there are forestry experts who reveal the rate of forest destruction in Indonesia was 1.08 million ha per year.

Types of Rainforests

Rainforests are found throughout the world, not only in tropical regions, but also in temperate regions like Canada, the United States, and the former Soviet Union. These forests, like tropical rainforests, receive abundant, year-round rainfall, and are characterized by an enclosed canopy and high species diversity, but lack the year-round warmth and sunlight associated with tropical rainforests. However this book focuses on tropical rainforests, and these are the only forest forms discussed here.

Tropical rainforests merge into other types of forest depending on the altitude, latitude, and various soil, flooding, and climate conditions. These forest types form a mosaic of vegetation types which contribute to the overwhelming diversity of the tropics.

EQUATORIAL EVERGREEN RAINFOREST VS. MOIST FOREST

There are two major types of wet tropical forests: equatorial evergreen rainforests and moist forests, which includes monsoon forests and montane/cloud forests. Equatorial rainforests, often considered the "real rainforest," are characterized by more than 80 inches (2,000 mm) of rain annually spread evenly throughout the year. These forests have the highest biological diversity and have a well-developed canopy "tier" form of vegetation. Roughly two-thirds of the world's tropical wet forests can be considered the equatorial type. These forests are near the equator where there is very little seasonal variation and the solar day is a constant length all year round. The greatest expanses of equatorial rainforest are found in lowland Amazonia, the Congo Basin, the Southeast Asian islands of Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea.

Tropical moist forests are found at a greater distance from the equator where rainfall and day length vary seasonally. These forests get "only" 50 inches (1,270 mm) of rain annually and are markedly distinguished from equatorial rainforests by a cooler dry season. During this dry season, many trees shed some or even all their leaves, creating a seasonal reduction of canopy cover and allowing more sunlight to reach the forest floor. The increased sunlight reaching the forest floor allows the growth of vigorous understory vegetation not found in lowland equatorial forest. Such moist forest is found in parts of South America, the Caribbean, West Africa, and Southeast Asia, especially Thailand, Burma, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka.

PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY FOREST

Throughout this site, other books, and discussions about tropical rainforest, the term "primary forest" is used. Primary forest refers to untouched, pristine forest that exists in its original condition. This forest has been relatively unaffected by human activities. Primary rainforest is often characterized by a full ceiling canopy and usually several layers of understory. The ground floor is generally clear of heavy vegetation because the full canopy allows very little light, necessary for plant growth, to penetrate. Occasionally, when a canopy tree falls, a temporary "light gap" is opened in the canopy, allowing growth of floor and understory species. Primary forest is the most biologically diverse type of forest.

Secondary forest is rainforest that has been disturbed in some way, naturally or unnaturally. Secondary forest can be created in a number of ways, from degraded forest recovering from selective logging, to areas cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture that have been reclaimed by forest. Generally, secondary forest is characterized (depending on its level of degradation) by a less developed canopy structure, smaller trees, and less diversity. Due to the lack of a full canopy, more light will reach the floor, supporting vigorous ground vegetation. "Jungle" is the term often applied to secondary forest with dense ground growth, but it is also applied to some tropical moist forests where seasonal variations permit thick ground growth.

Primary versus total forest cover for selected tropical countries

		Total land area		Total forest cover 2005				Primary forest cover 2005				Total deforestation 1990-2005		Loss of primary forest 1990-2005
Country		(1000 ha)		(1000 ha)		% of total land area		(1000 ha)		% of total land area		% of 1990 forest cover		% of 1990 primary forest cover
Bolivia		109,858		58,740		54.2		29,360		26.7		-6.5		-6.5
Cambodia		18,104		10,447		59.2		322		1.8		-19.3		-58.0
Congo		34,200		22,471		65.8		7,464		21.8		-1.1		-1.1
Costa Rica		5,110		2,391		46.8		180		3.5		-6.7		-29.4
Ghana		23,854		5,517		24.2		353		1.5		-25.9		0.0
Guatemala		10,889		3,938		36.3		1,957		18.0		-17.1		-17.0
Malawi		11,848		3,402		36.2		1,132		9.6		-12.7		-34.5
Malaysia		32,975		20,890		63.6		3,820		11.6		-6.6		0.0
Nigeria		92,377		11,089		12.2		326		0.4		-35.7		-79.0
Senegal		19,672		8,673		45		1,598		8.1		-7.2		-9.2
Thailand		51,312		14,520		28.4		6,451		12.6		-9.1		0.0
Brazil		851,488		477,698		57.2		415,890		48.8		-8.1		-9.7
Colombia		113,891		60,728		58.5		53,062		46.6		-1.2		-1.5
Côte d'Ivoire		32,246		10,405		32.7		625		1.9		1.8		0.0
Liberia		11,137		3,154		32.7		129		1.2		-22.3		0.0
Madagascar		58,704		12,838		22.1		10,347		17.6		-6.2		-1.5
Mexico		195,820		64,238		33.7		32,850		16.8		-6.9		-15.3
Panama		7,552		4,294		57.7		3,023		40.0		-1.9		-18.4
Papua New Guinea		46,284		29,437		65		25,211		54.5		-6.6		-13.7
Peru		128,522		68,742		53.7		61,065		47.5		-2.0		-2.9
Philippines		30,000		7,162		24		829		2.8		-32.3		0.0
Sri Lanka		6,561		1,933		29.9		167		2.5		-17.7		-35.0

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that primary forests now account for 36 percent of total forest area, but are being lost or modified at a rate of 6 million hectares a year through deforestation or selective logging. Selective logging, where only one or two valuable tree species are harvested from an area, was recently found to be degrading forests in the Amazon twice as fast as deforestation figures indicate.

Scientists do not know how long it takes for secondary forest to attain the structure and levels of biodiversity of primary forest. A recent study by conducted as part of the Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA) determined that trees in the Central Amazon may, on average, be several hundred years old, suggesting that primary forests take a long time to develop.


LOWLAND VS. MONTANE FOREST

Lowland tropical rainforest refers to the majority of tropical rainforest, that is, forest which grows on flat lands at elevations generally less than 3,300 feet (1,000 m)—although elevation may vary. Lowland primary forest, often characterized by more than five forest tier levels, is usually taller and more diverse than montane forest. It has a greater diversity of fruiting trees; hence more animals specially adapted to feed on their fruits and more large mammals. Lowland rainforest is far more threatened than montane forest because of its accessibility, more suitable soils for agriculture, and more hardwoods valuable as timber. In many countries, virtually all lowland primary forest is gone, while montane forest still remains.

Tropical montane rainforest is forest that grows on mountains and above an altitude of 3,300 feet. High montane forest, above 6,600-10,000 feet (2,500-3,000 meters) in elevation, is often manifested as "cloud forest," forest that receives the majority of its precipitation from mist or fog that passes up from the moist, humid lowlands. The trees of cloud forests are typically shorter than those of lowland forest resulting in a less-developed canopy. Nevertheless, cloud forest trees are heavily burdened with epiphytes that thrive with the abundance of moisture from the passing fog. Trees in places like the lower elevations of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela; Central America (Monteverde in Costa Rica in particular); Borneo (Mount Kinabalu); and Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Zaire, Uganda), are frequently green with dense moss and beautiful, often rare, orchids.

Patches of cloud forests tend to have many endemic species, because they are often isolated from other sections of cloud forest by valleys and ridges. These species are prevented from migrating to other forest areas by these obstacles to the sides, by the lowland forest below, and by steep cliffs above. Cloud forests are home to an abundance of hummingbirds, frogs, and epiphytes like orchids, bromeliads, and mosses. Many of these species are endemic to a single locality, like the Golden toad of Monteverde, Costa Rica, a species which is now believed to be extinct. Cloud forests generally lack an abundance of large-bodied mammals due to the small number of fruiting trees.

Tropical montane forests are especially in the South American Andean region, where much of the forest has been cleared for agriculture. Of the continent's endangered species, a disproportionate number of those are found in yungas, the regional name for tropical montane forests in the Andes. These forests have also been little studied.

Above 10,000 feet (3,300 m), cloud forest may give way to sub-alpine and alpine forest. These habitats have less rain, fewer trees, and reduced biodiversity compared with lower elevation forests.

Chart showing percentage cover of world forests. Rainforests are a subsection of "Tropical forests".

OTHER TYPES OF FOREST

SEASONAL OR MONSOON FOREST
Monsoon forests are tropical moist or seasonal rainforests found primarily in Asia (India/Sri Lanka to China), West and East Africa, Northern Australia, and Eastern Brazil. In this type of forest there is a distinct cooler dry season and a distinct wet season. These forests tend to be less diverse and more dwarfed in terms of tree size in comparison to typical equatorial rainforests.

Monsoon forests are highly threatened worldwide by clearing for cultivation, especially in West Africa, where over 90 percent of the coastal rainforests and the monsoon forests have been cleared.

IGAPÒ FOREST

Flooded forest in Brazil | more Photo by R. Butler

Igapò forest is rainforest that is regularly inundated for extended periods during the flood season (sometimes considered permanently flooded rainforest). The best known of such forests are found in the Amazon Basin where they make up about 2 percent of the total rainforest. Igapò forest trees are shorter than those of non-flooded forest because of the instability caused by the wet, poorly drained soils (hence it is sometimes known as "swamp forest") and characterized by certain tree species like Cecropia, Ceiba, and Mauritia palms (also known as the aguaje palm). Many igapò tree species have stilt roots and flying buttresses to lend structural support. Igapò forest is flooded (4-10 months of the year) and flooding is usually predictable. Fish play an important role in seed dispersal in this forest system.

VÀRZEA FOREST
Vàrzea forests are floodplain forests which flood seasonally. Unlike swamp forests, varzeà forests have relatively rich soils from the annual replenishment of nutrients from whitewater rivers. Because these forests are more suitable for agriculture than typical rainforest, they are some of the most threatened. Even in the Amazon where vast majority of such forests are found, vàrzea are disappearing rapidly for development.

Floodplain forests, especially those located on river banks and islands, are often short-lived due to the meandering nature of tropical lowland rivers which eat away at the forests' base. According to Amazon Headwaters, a book by Michael Goulding and his colleagues, research in Peru suggests that most floodplain forests are rarely older than 200 years and may have turnover rates exceeding 1.6 percent, implying an average tree life of 63 years. For this reason, floodplain forests are nearly always in some stage of succession with pioneer species like Cecropia being replaced with Kapok (Ceiba) and fig trees further away from the river.

HEATH FOREST
Heath forests are found on well-drained, sandy soils that are extremely nutrient-poor. These forests are characterized by certain tree species tolerant of the poor, acidic soil conditions and are considerably "stunted" in comparison with typical rainforests. More light reaches the forest floor making for dense tree growth. Heath forests, also known as blackwater or caatinga forests, are drained by blackwater rivers and are found primarily in the Amazon Basin (the Rio Negro drainage), but also in parts of Asia.

PEAT FOREST  [news and information on peatlands]
Peat forest is found in small parts of Africa, northeastern South America, and large areas in southeast Asia (especially Borneo and Sumatra). These swamp forests appear in places where dead vegetation becomes waterlogged and accumulates as peat. The peat acts as a sort of sponge withholding moisture at times of little rainfall and absorbing monsoon rains. When peat swamp forests are drained for agricultural projects, they become highly susceptible to combustion. Under the dry el Niño conditions of 1997-98, thousands of fires raged in the peat swamps of Indonesia. Fires in peat swamps are extraordinarily difficult to extinguish because the conflagration continues in the deeper layers of peat.

TERRA FIRME FOREST
Terra Firme literally means "firm earth" and refers to rainforest that is not inundated by flooded rivers. This forest is noticeably taller and more diverse (>400 species/hectare in some areas) than igapò or flooded forest. It is found only on dry, well-drained soils and is characterized by such species as Brazil nut trees, Rubber trees, and many tropical hardwood trees.

MANGROVE FOREST [news and information on peatlands]
Mangrove forest is found in silt-rich, saline (brackish water) habitats worldwide, generally along large river deltas, estuaries, and coastal areas. It is characterized by low tree diversity, almost exclusively mangroves, with a low broken canopy. Mangroves are evergreen trees and shrubs that are well adapted to their salty and swampy habitat by having breathing roots (pneumatophores) that emerge from the oxygen-deficient mud to absorb oxygen.

Mangroves in Honduras. Photo by R. Butler. More mangrove photos

Mangrove swamps are home to numerous bizarre amphibious fish species like the mudskippers of eastern Africa to Australia and Anableps, the so-called four-eyed fish of the New World. Mudskippers are renowned for their preference for terrestrial haunts over aquatic realms. These fish spend more time on floating debris, tree toots, and plants than they do in the water where they only go to escape predators. Watching a group of Mudskippers reminds the observer of what our ancestors must have looked like when they first left the ocean for life on land. Mudskippers are highly intelligent fish that feed primarily on insects and crustacean.

A second amphibious species found in mangrove forests is the Anableps. a species widespread in the New World from Central America to northern South America. Most notable about its physical features is its double-lobed eyes which allow it to see both above and below the water line as it swims along the water surface. The Anableps, too, regularly leaves the water to perch on tree roots and rocks.

Mangrove forests are some of the most threatened ecosystems on the planet because of their proximity to the ocean (prime resort/development property) and the tendency for local people and governments to undervalue the services they provide. A recent study by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations found that 20 percent of the world's mangrove forests have disappeared since 1980, mostly due to farming, harvesting for timber and charcoal, freshwater diversion, real estate development, and conversion for tourism.

According to the Environmental Justice Foundation, about 38 percent of global mangrove deforestation is linked to shrimp farm development. Mangrove clearing for commercial shrimp and prawn hatcheries is particularly prevalent in Southeast Asia. Ironically this form of aquaculture has come at the expense of the natural fish and shrimp hatchery.

The destruction of mangrove forest has dire implications for the fisheries industry, since these forests provide an important spawning ground and serve as a nursery for many commercially important species. In addition, mangrove forest protects coastal regions against storm damage and erosion. Research conducted following the 2004 tsunami in Asia found that areas forested with mangroves suffered considerably less damage than areas without tree vegetation.

Mangrove forests are slow to recover from clearing and degradation. For example, seismic lines only a few meters wide in the mangrove forest of Nigeria were still visible by air a decade after they were cut.


Review questions:

• What is the difference between primary and secondary forest?
• True or false—Cloud forest is found in mountainous areas.
• True or false—flooding is common in the Amazon rainforest.
• Why are mangrove forests important?
• Why are mangrove forests being destroyed?